Social Science Review

 

Challenges Faced by the Working Women and Their Contribution in Changing Family Structure to Child Socialization in Bangladesh: A Study of Gopalganj City   Tulika Podder1,2,[*]   1PhD Fellow at Institute of Bangladesh Studies, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi-6205 2Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Gopalganj Science and Technology University

 

Keywords		Abstract
Family Structure, Working Women, Challenges, Child Socialization		The present paper primarily focuses on the challenges faced by the working women for their contribution in changing family structure and child socialization of Gopalganj district in Bangladesh. This paper is wedded to analyze the social reality of the working women who are engaged in diverse profession by exploring the fact that how socioeconomic necessities enforce them to be engaged in various Income Generating Subsistence activities (IGAs) both to support their family and children. The paper is primarily based on empirical data gathered through direct interviewing with the purposively chosen working women living in Gopalganj District town of the study area, observation, focus group discussions (FGDs), case studies, and informal interviews with some stakeholders. Findings reveal that women have to face complexities in constraining time (94.23%), in balancing both working environment and children all together (85.58%), managing family (60.58%) and in getting support o spouse (25%). Based on the findings, the study concludes with some recommendations to formulate suggestive policy with strong network of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to ensure working women’s job protection, helpful job location and friendly working environment for eradicating inequality and to confirm sustainable development.

 

Introduction

The increasing participation of women in the labor force has renovated household dynamics and reorganized outmoded child-rearing roles across societies. While this shift denotes women's growing economic independence and contributions to national development, it simultaneously introduces complex challenges in fulfilling caregiving responsibilities, particularly in the domain of child socialization (Tahilramani & Patil, 2025; Kader et al., 2024; Bala, 2021; Amour et al., 2007). Over recent decades, there has been an enormous increase in the number of women entering the labor market. Subordination of women to fathers and husbands remained prevalent throughout the many generations that followed (Tahilramani & Patil, 2025; Kader et al., 2024; Folger, 2012). But, in recent times, the existence of women over the time is in transition or shift from traditional to modern. Everywhere in every society, women have to performed different roles in the home that directly or indirectly affect all family members (Feld et al., 2023; Pilarz, 2020). Since 1970, women’s labor force participation has increased, especially for women with children. In 1970, about 50 percent of all women ages 30 to 34 worked; from 1990 onward almost 80 percent did (K. S & Kalpana, 2024). 

In addition, gender gaps in labor market outcomes have declined (Bala, 2021; Dyankova, 2020; Plotnick, 2006). Almost in all societies, norms and values imposed on women to be the main protector and caregivers to children (Gwak, 2015; UNDP 1995). The role of the woman who used to be adopted only capable of working in the domestic realm, but this time she is able to develop itself in the public sphere (Kopp et al., 2023). This raises the existence of variants of interest, between the domestic and the public sphere. The number of working women is increasing day by day in Bangladesh but simultaneously different challenges are faced by women in working place especially urban working women (Kona et. al. 2018). 

The contribution of working mother in family income and changing family structures over the past decades are well known (Kader et al., 2024; Feld et al., 2023; Folger, 2012). With the processes of industrialization, modernization, and the recent trends of globalization, the structural features and the functional implications of family have started changing in Gopalganj City (Kader et al., 2024). In the present society, with increasing awareness about the rights, the women have increasingly been finding jobs at different levels (Gregory, 2009). This is increasingly taking place in the urban areas of Gopalganj City and among the well-educated classes (Kader et al., 2023). Most of the working mothers in Bangladesh feel insecure for her child. If she has someone in her family to look after her childlike in-laws or grandparents, then she may feel secured for her child which cause may bring some difficulties to continue work abroad the household. Sometimes some working women sacrifice career if they don’t have any option for taking care of their kids ((Pilarz, 2020; Farooqet. al., 2018). 

The present study has identified the influence of working women in their family and upheld the changes caused due to participation of women into income generating activities in Gopalganj City. It has been revealed the effect of working women on their children as Bangladeshi working women spend less time maintaining the home then they did in last decade. However, mothers’ employed status benefits children by improving family income, better disciplined work behavior and better structure of family routines. A woman may work out of a financial compulsion, a desire to fulfill herself, or to supplement the family income. In this study it has been observed that the relation and the perspective of the family member toward the working women and its effect on the structural changes of family (imposed on women to be the main protector and caregivers to children (Tahilramani & Patil, 2025). They can contribute significantly to the socioeconomic development of the family if proper environment can be ensured. To improve the overall economic condition of the family and to reduce their economic, social and political constraints, the government, NGOs, private sectors and most importantly public awareness is needed. Almost in all societies, norms and values imposed on women to be the main protector and caregivers to children (Tahilramani & Patil, 2025; UNDP 1995; Kona et. al. 2018). Women perform different activities such as childcare, breastfeeding, preparing food, collecting water etc. In family income, women also play important roles (Gregory, 2009). In developing countries especially women job is likely to be essential to family endurance besides, raising a child is responsibility of a woman and motherhood bound women for this responsibility. 

This study has been enthusiastically understood (i) the challenges faced by urban working women in Gopalganj City and to identify the key socio-economic characteristics contributing to women’s status, security and safety and to study women’s involvement in various activities or organizations for improving of family, community and society in this study region of Bangladesh. The another main attempt of this present study is (ii) to reveal the fact that how the process of children socialization takes places in those families where mothers remain out of home for job. The study also has explored the effects of mother’s employment on their children’s brought up whether the dual responsibilities of employment and mothering are actually undertaken at the expense of child well-being (Farooqet. al., 2018). The primary objective is (iii) to find the contribution of working women in changing family structure and for socializing children. Present paper also attempts (iv) to investigate the major challenges that have to face them in maintain both workplace and family in Bangladesh by exploring various theoretical aspects. Besides, it seeks (v) to know the socioeconomic profile of the working women to find out the extent, forms and causes behind the engagement in jobs beyond the household activities. Concurrently, this study strains to explore the challenges faced by the working women and the contribution of changing family structure due to engage of women in working sector. 

 

Literature Review and Research Gap

The participation of women in the contemporary workforce has risen markedly; nonetheless, working mother continues to have difficulties in balancing their personal and professional responsibilities (Kopp et al., 2023; Karl et al., 2024; Schaber et al., 2020; Eberhard-Gran et al., 2010; Black et al., 2013). In addition to fulfilling traditional caregiving responsibilities, women today significantly contribute to economic growth (Karl et al., 2024). However, balancing familial responsibilities and professional obligations poses considerable challenges (Olivieri et al., 2024; Schaber et al., 2020). These challenges encompass workplace discrimination, insufficient maternity leave, and cultural norms that prioritize familial responsibilities over professional aspirations (Priya Fielding-Singh et al., 2024, Bala, 2021; Dyankova, 2020; Gisselmann & Hemström, 2008). The association between mother's employment and child socialization is intricate, influenced by income factors, time distribution, caring alternatives, and cultural background (K. G. L. A. N. S Jayawardhana & M. Srihari, 2025; Tahilramani & Patil, 2025; Eberhard-Gran et al., 2010; Gisselmann & Hemström, 2008). Extensive global literature identifies both advantageous and detrimental pathways: where maternal employment increases household resources, generally enhancing children's access to education, nutrition, and health (Kopp et al., 2023; Pilarz, 2020; Kona et al., 2018). Conversely, maternal work may diminish time available for direct caregiving and supervision, potentially jeopardizing attachment, consistency in discipline, and academic oversight in the absence of high-quality substitutes (Nicolaus et al., 2021; Schaber et al., 2020; Gisselmann & Hemström, 2008). 

Empirical investigations emphasize conditional effects. Recent syntheses demonstrate that the timing, intensity, and quality of childcare determine outcomes: early full-time maternal employment (Gisselmann & Hemström, 2008) frequently associates with diminished school readiness in certain contexts unless offset by high-quality childcare and parental resources (Karl et al., 2024; Eberhard-Gran et al., 2010). In addition, later or part-time employment together with additional supports normally provides neutral or advantageous impacts on child development (Tahilramani & Patil, 2025; Schaber et al., 2020; Pilarz, 2020). In the context of Bangladesh, several studies illustrate comparable ambivalence, which are addressing significant cultural and institutional factors (Kader et al., 2024; Gwak, 2015; Natekar & Dr. N.H. Patil, 2012). Research from various Bangladeshi districts indicates that employed mothers significantly enhance household welfare and children's material conditions (educational expenses, healthcare costs, and sanitation); however, they concurrently face severe work-family conflict, role strain (Goode, 1960), and societal criticism, which can diminish maternal time and emotional availability (Kader et al., 2024; Karl et al., 2024; Bala, 2021; Dyankova, 2020). These dynamics frequently result in dependence on alternative caregivers (relatives, hired assistance) whose level of guidance fluctuates, hence influencing children's behavioral and academic performance (Feld et al., 2023).

Recent studies demonstrate gaps based on occupation, income, and support systems: professional and higher-income mothers frequently compensate for time with quality services and flexible schedules (Kader et al., 2024; Bala, 2021). Besides, this leads to improved child development; conversely, low-income women (in informal employment sectors with extended hours) experience significant trade-offs between economic necessity and caregiving quality (Karl et al., 2024; Schaber et al., 2020; Dyankova, 2020). This variety highlights that governmental and institutional supports (maternity leave, workplace daycare, inclusive labor rules) are crucial for converting women's employment into favorable socialization outcomes for children (Dyankova, 2020; Gisselmann & Hemström, 2008; A Comparative Study of Happiness Index in Working Women Belonging to Two Socio-Economic Status during Lockdown Periods of COVID-19,” 2020).

 

Conceptual Clarification

The present study draws a sociological understanding of family structure, conceptualized as a social unit composed of individuals connected through marriage, blood ties, or co-residence, typically including at least one child less than 18 years of age. Within this research, the family is viewed as a dynamic social institution, whose form and broader socio-economic forces, cultural norms, and environmental contexts shape functions. Processes of industrialization, modernization, and globalization have increasingly reconfigured traditional family arrangements, altering role expectations, decision-making patterns, and intergenerational relations. The term working woman in this study refers to women engaged in paid employment—whether formal or informal—who simultaneously negotiate professional responsibilities and domestic obligations. Such women often carry a dual burden of productive and reproductive labor, yet their economic participation contributes to enhanced agency, empowerment, and improved family well-being. The concept of challenges is used to denote the structural constraints, role conflicts, and everyday pressures faced by working women as they strive to balance workplace demands with household management and childcare responsibilities. Children, defined here as individuals aged 5 to 18, are understood as socially dependent actors whose identities, attitudes, and capacities are shaped through interaction with family and society. In this study, child socialization is interpreted as a foundational sociological process through which children internalize cultural values, norms, behaviors, and social expectations, ultimately shaping their development and integration into society.

 

Conceptual Framework of this Study

The figure illustrates how women's employment generates both positive outcomes and systemic issues that influence children's social interactions. Field data indicate that despite significant economic and familial contributions, working women face psychosocial stress, vocational limitations, and reduced availability for direct childcare (Fig 1). These pressures render children emotionally detached, diminish the consistency of monitoring, and adversely affect their academic performance (Fig 1). 

 

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework on Challenges Faced by the Women and Their Contribution in Family to Child Care

Source: Based on findings researcher has developed this framework

 

The figure 1 highlights that insufficient maternity leave, gender inequality, and inadequate childcare facilities exacerbate stress and complicate the management of work and family life (Fig 1). Policy interventions such as enhanced maternity leave, equal compensation, and institutional childcare are essential to mitigate adverse consequences and foster healthy child development in households with dual-income parents (Fig 1).

Methodology

Study and Location: A Synopsis

To conduct a research, a specific area should be selected. That is why one suitable study area the Gopalganj town, under Gopalganj Sadar Upazila of Gopalganj district in Bangladesh has been selected as study locale for this research in fulfilling study objectives. The district has 1,172,415 inhabitants and its surface area is 1,490 km² (Shirajul et al., 2012). The main town of the district is also called Gopalganj (see Fig 2: Map 1). It is the bank of the Madhumati river and located at 23°00’47.67" N 89°49’21.41" that is bounded by Faridpur district on the North, Pirojpur and Bagerhat district on the south, and Barisal District on the east and Narail district on the West (Shirajul et al., 2012).

Figure 2 (Map 1): Study Area in Gopalganj City of Bangladesh

 

Sampling and Methods of Data Collection

This study employed a mixed-methods strategy, integrating both qualitative and quantitative methods. In this study, a purposive sampling method is utilized to choose working women for interviews and distribution of questionnaires. The criterion for choosing households within the study villages was the presence of a working women (WW). The paper is primarily based the data gathered through direct interviewing with the purposively chosen 104 WW who are engaged in Income Generating Activities (IGAs) at different working sectors. A pilot survey was conducted on 40 WW to assess the suitability of the data collection instrument. The findings from the pilot survey were used to develop the data collection instrument. 

A number of qualitative methods and their respective techniques have been used in addition to quantitative method. Different types of methods and techniques of observation, case studies, FGDs (Focus Group Discussions), and KIIs (Key Informants Interviews) have been adopted in this context for qualitative data collection. To conduct this research 6 case studies and 3 FGDs have been conducted in Gopalganj district town for collecting qualitative data. Besides, observation and KIIs (Key Informants Interviews) have been also used for qualitative data collection. Considerable informal interviews with the Gopalganj District town leaders, other stakeholders and community members have been incorporated in this research for gathering more empirical data that have been strengthened the accuracy of primary data collected from the respondents. 

 

Table 1: The Methods and Techniques of Data Collection 

SL No.	Objectives	Methods/Tools/ Techniques	Target Group/Source	Analytical Issue
1	To know the socioeconomic profile of working women	Social Survey: Questionnaire, and Interview	Working Women Parents	Socioeconomic of working women
2	To find out the extent, forms and causes behind the engagement in jobs beyond the household activities.	Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) Interview Key Informant Interview (KII)	Working Women Parents Community People	Extent, forms and causes behind the engagement in jobs beyond the household activities
3	To explore the challenges faced by the working women and the contribution of changing family structure due to engage of women in working sector	Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) Interview Case Studies observation Key Informant Interview (KII)	Working Women Parents Community People Other Stakeholders	Challenges women have to face in and beyond the household
4	To examine the process of child socialization takes places in working women’s family.	Informal Interview Case Studies Key Informant Interview (KII)	Working Women Children Community People Other Stakeholders	Policy implications Effects on child socialization and child rights

During the period of fieldwork, by being presence at the workplaces of the female professionals it has been possible for researcher to keenly observe the physical environment, health care facilities, availability of health care services for emergencies, their engagement in different tasks of working routine, and so on.

 

 

Techniques of Data Collection

The techniques of social survey method have been used for quantitative empirical data collection. The research is empirical in nature. The proposed research has been administered as a semi-structured interview schedule for gathering primary data through social survey. Survey questionnaire has been included both the open ended and close ended questions. The open ended questions have been encouraged the respondents to describe in her own language and/or in own opinion in one hand and on the other, it has been lead the researcher for asking more relevant additional questions to explore the social reality.

 

Unit of Analysis

In this study, 104 female professionals in different occupations have been purposively chosen as unit of analysis for this study from study area. The female professionals dwelling in Gopalganj has been directly interviewed for gathering primary data. 

 

Justification of Study

The working women in Gopalganj City of Bangladesh have a great contribution in changing family structures but, they have to face multifarious challenges in maintaining both household and beyond the household jobs. Therefore, to make the study fruitful from the gender and child rights perspectives, the methodology of this proposed research have been utilized both the quantitative and qualitative approaches. As the numeric measurement and/or qualitative interpretation of social reality existed in the study areas have been focused, both the quantitative and qualitative data have been collected during fieldwork. The database of this research is a mix of quantitative and qualitative data. 

 

Ethical Considerations

This investigation was executed with utmost adherence to ethical norms. Prior to each interview, participants were thoroughly apprised of the research's objective, and their consent was meticulously secured. They were guaranteed of their entitlement to withdraw from the study at any time without repercussions. Furthermore, participants were permitted to omit any questions they deemed uncomfortable. All interviews were performed in private environments to ensure discretion, and confidentiality was upheld by coding the data without employing personal identifiers. This methodology guaranteed the preservation of participants' privacy and autonomy during the research process, cultivating an atmosphere of trust and respect.

 

Results and Discussions

Socio-economic Profile of the Working Women

The physical environment, geographical location, and type of infrastructures, socioeconomic condition, knowledge, awareness and skill are constantly important factors to reveal the status of the working women in Gopalganj (Eberhard-Gran et al., 2010; Bala, 2021; Dyankova, 2020; Gwak Hyun Ju & 최은영, 2015; Natekar & Dr. N.H. Patil, 2012). The Socio-economic status of women workers is a critical aspect of gender equality and development that provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of women in Bangladesh (Kona et. al. 2018; Gisselmann & Hemström, 2008; A Comparative Study of Happiness Index in Working Women Belonging to Two Socio-Economic Status during Lockdown Periods of COVID-19,” 2020). An improvement in women’s work conditions as a means to raise women’s socio-economic status and improve both their and their children’s socio-economic status (Baderschneider & Lunneborg, 1992). Many sociologists such as Durkheim (1912), Sorokin (1927), Lipset and Bendix (1959), Anderson (1961), Mcgurie (1964) affirmed and recognized the significant correlation between socioeconomic background characteristics and social mobility occurred in the social reality. The study area Gopalganj town is subject to investigate the social reality of the working women in changing their family structure and their contribution to child socialization. There is a proverb that:

 

The working women in Gopalganj Town also have been found similar in this regard because they have to face challenges in maintaining their family, workplace and also in bearing and rearing children which may affect their children’s socialization (K. S & Kalpana, 2024; Ezra & Deckman, 1996). In this section, the present socioeconomic profile of this study area is shaped by the combination of age group, education, gender parity, landownership, occupation, income earning group, residential pattern, transportation and communication pattern, social environment of living, etc. Weber (1921) located that the socioeconomic status (SES) is based on an interplay between the class, status, and power of members of society.  This research has studied to find out the exact picture of livelihood systems of working women because the socio-economic importance of the working women in present study is as a source of employment, income, and other goods and environmental services, and their status both in society and family structure (Tahilramani & Patil, 2025; Dyankova, 2020). Edinger and Searing (1967) adopted the 'Social Background Approach' to infer that ding of the social structure and mechanisms. The social background and recruitment patterns of leaders facilitate understand. This chapter has been aimed to analyze educational status of the study working women of the households, occupational diversities, income group status, amount of monthly income, amount of monthly expenditure, transportation and communication pattern, educational status of their children.

 

Educational Status

A popular proverb says that education is the backbone of a nation. Education is an important quality of human life and educational status, of course, an important indicator to assess the factors of working women. Islam (2016) argued that total literacy rate of Bangladesh is 61.5 percent where male rate is 64.6 percent, and female is 58.5 percent (UNESCO 2015). In Bangladesh, the primary has been made compulsory for all children under primary education Act of 1991. The UNCRC (1989) declares primary education as a right of children and the states should make available, free, and give financial support for education to the children. Article 28 (1) of UNCRC declares that children and young people have the right to education no matter who they are, regardless of race, gender or disability. The educational status of the parents in this study village is not very poor. The field reality of the study area finds the fact that the first majority of the parent’s educational qualification in this area is secondary education. The field data attests the fact that in this area the 1st majority (22.12%; n=23 of 104) of the working women have completed their secondary education (Table 1). 

Table 2: Percentage of Working Women’s Education Level

 

Another 21.15 percent (n=22 of 104; 2^nd majority) working women have secured higher secondary in addition, 20.19 percent (n= 21 of 104; 3^rd majority) and 16.35 percent (n=17 of 104; 4^th majority) achieved the primary and graduation respectively. It also estimated that only fifth majority (8.65%; n= 9 of 104) have completed post-graduation. The study finds that 5.77 percent (n=6 of 104; 6^th majority) working women are only literate and 3.85 percent (n=4 of 104; 7^th majority) are illiterate and both illiterate and only literate the working women have to face much challenges in caring their child education because they are unable to help their children in reading and writing.  

Through the overall analysis of the aforementioned empirical data, it is obvious that the educational status of respondent in Gopalganj town is not highly unsatisfactory. Lack of education may harm the potentiality of their children. Islam (2016) argued that because of poor education children are vulnerable to many social ills: child marriages, unhygienic latrine use, drop out from school, poor health, malnutrition, etc. Their parent’s educational advancement and efficiency could be essential tools for preventing and eliminating such social ill.

 

Monthly Income and Expenditure Level of the Working Women

To understand socioeconomic condition of a household, income plays an important role to reveal that. Amount of monthly and/or annual income of a household indicates the socioeconomic status of this household in a society. Income is one of the most important variables to measure the socio economic status of a family or household. The socioeconomic status of the working women is an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person’s work experience and of an individual’s or family’s economic and social position in relation to others based on income. In fact, income of every section of population determines the overall economic strength of that population. 

On the basis of monthly income, the respondent households of Gopalganj town can be classified in three main categories. In this present study lower class income group has been classified into two classes as lower-lower (1000-6000) and upper-lower (6000-11000). In addition to middle class income group has been classified into two classes such as lower-middle (11000-16000) and upper middle (16000- 21000). This section of this study reveals the monthly income of the working women at Gopalganj town in Gopalganj District. The field data  attest the fact that 1^st majority 39.42 percent (n=41 of 104) working women have been found lower class income group that is why with this lower amount of money they have to sustain their family function along with their children’s expenses in fulfilling basic needs. 

              Table 3: Amount of Monthly Income of Working Women

 

Table 4: Amount of Monthly Expenditure of Working Women

 

Besides, 2^nd majority 35.58 percent (n=37 of 104) households are belonging in middle class income group and their monthly income is ≥11000 to ≤21000 BDT only (Table 2). 

The field reality also attest that 25 percent (n=26 of 104; 3^rd majority) are belong in upper class and their income is ≥21000 to ≤26000 BDT per month (Table 2). From table 3 it is clear that though 39.42 percent (Table 2) working women belongs to lower class but 1^st majority 51.92 percent have been found whose monthly expenditure is 16000 to 21000 (Table 3). The field data reveals that 2^nd majority and 3^rd majority (25.96%; n=27 of 104) and (22.11%; n=23 of 104) working women’smonthly expenditure is 11000 to 21000 and 21000 to 26000 respectively(Table 3). 

The study also investigated the fact that first majority, most of the households in this study village are found lower class households based on their monthly income. Poor income lessens the opportunity to invest in educational sector, health sector and other sectors such as clothing, strengthening house structure, invest in different income generating sources, savings, recreation etc. that are very much interrelated in changing family structure. Respondents of the study area are poor in terms of their income and thus they are less capable to expend more money for other purposes.

Through the overall analysis of the aforementioned empirical data, it is obvious that most of the working women in this area are lower class and they maintain their family by 1000 to 11000 Taka per month. It is undeniable that this amount is very meager to continue their livelihood in this preset era and it’s very difficult to maintain a family or overcome the poor socioeconomic conditions. It is evident from the study that low monthly income is lowering the ability of an individual to maintain a minimum standard of living and to cope with present economic status. That is why lower-lower, upper-lower, lower-middle, upper-middle class households have to search for new income generating activities to continue their livelihood. These parents with Lower and Middle class status often fail to provide the basic necessities of their children. Sometimes they have to take loan for surviving family and for rearing children’s basic needs.

 

Occupational Diversities of Households

Occupation of the working women is such an activity or task with which theyoccupythem; usually specifically the productive activity, service, trade, or craft for which theyare regularly paid a job. As some of the respondent women’s socioeconomic status is not high, they have to engage secondary jobs in respect of their capability for their familial, social and economic survival. Besides, all of the working women have to maintain their family functions. Occupational pattern is influenced by labor market. Opportunities for off farm activities are marginal in this area and the livelihood largely depends on agricultural work and other activities such as farming, fishing, agricultural labor, day labor and business. The field data attest the fact that 1^st majority (35.58%; n=37 of 104) working women are engaged as maid servant for earning their livelihood which is their primary occupation (Table 4).

 

Table 5: Occupational Diversities of the Working Women

        Note: Multiple responses Considered;

 

In addition, the study also found that 2^nd majority (25%; n=26 of 104) are teacher; 3^rd majority (14.42%; n=15 of 104) are day labor; 4^th majority (11.54%; n=12 of 104) are sweeper; 5^th majority (4.81%; n=5 of 104) are engaged in private job. In addition,  6^th majority (3.85%; n=4 of 104) are found as tailors; 7^th majority (02.88%; n=3 of 104) are accountant; 8^th majority (01.92%; n=2 of 104) are working at banking sectors and 9^th majority (00.96%; n=1 of 104) are nurse and all of these occupations are their primary occupation (Table 4).  In this study, it also found that 100 percent respondents have to manage their household chores besides, they also take care their children. The field data also attest the fact that (71.15%, n=74 of 104; 2^nd majority) are engaged with agricultural activities and (25.96%; n=27 of 104; 3^rd majority), (06.73%; n=7 of 104; 4^th majority) working women are involved in pastoral and tailoring activities as their secondary occupation.

 

Challenges Faced by the Working Women

The number of working women is increasing day by day in Bangladesh but simultaneously different challenges are faced by women in working place especially urban working women (Pilarz, 2020). The main objective of this section is to understand the challenges faced by working women in Gopalganj town and to identify the key socio-economic characteristics contributing to women’s status, security and safety and to study women’s involvement in various activities or organizations for improving of family, community and society. The study attests the fact that first majority (94.23%) of the working women have to face challenges in constraining time (Table 5a). The finding of (Hossain, 2018:10) also supports the findings of this study.

 

Table 5a: Challenges in Balancing both Family and Workplace

Note: Multiple Responses Considered 

 

 

 

Graph 1: Showing the Challenges in Balancing both Family and Workplace

 

The study also reveals the reality that 2^nd majority (89.42%), 3^rd majority (85.58%), 4^th majority (71.15%), 5^th majority (60.58%), 6^th majority (39.42%) of the working women have to face challenges and problems in attending family functions, rearing children, have to face physical stress, problems in managing family and duration of working time (Table 5a, Chart 1). In addition,  7^th majority (35.58%), 8^th majority (33.65%), 9^th majority (25%), 10^th majority (10.58%) and 11^th majority (8.65%) facing challenges in giving time to family members, absence of emotional support, support of husband, emerging family problems and in getting leisure time respectively (Table 5a, Chart 1). 

 

Analysis of the Challenges Faced by the Working Women in Child Socialization: Theoretical Explanation

The findings indicate multifaceted challenges that working mothers encounter in successfully socializing their children, with each facet strongly associated with prominent sociological and psychological theories.

 

Constraining Time and Attachment Disruption (Attachment Theory – Bowlby, 1969)

A considerable percentage of professional women indicate constraints of time 29.81 percent (n=31 of 104) lack direct supervision time, 53.85 percent meet less engagement, and 70.19 percent have inconsistent interaction with their children (Table 5b). Attachment Theory asserts that consistent and responsive caring is crucial for establishing solid emotional bonds (Bawlby, 1969). The identified restrictions are associated with children's perceptions of insecurity, erratic discipline, and diminished emotional bonding. These results illustrate Bowlby’s concept that inconsistent parental presence might undermine stable attachment and developmental stability.

 

Role Conflict, Overload, and Parental Stress (Role Strain Theory – Goode, 1960)

A prodigious number of respondents (83.65%, n= 87 of 104) face covering domestic and professional responsibilities, while 100 percent (n=104 of 104) experience psychological stress, demonstrating critical role load (Table 5b). Role Strain Theory (Goode, 1960) explains, “Individuals managing multiple simultaneous roles meet conflict and emotional exhaustion” (Goode, 1960). Children of such working mother exhibit emotional insecurity and unpredictable behavioral responses due to parental stress. The tension arising from balancing the demands of paid work and caregiving limits mothers' emotional availability, which is influencing children's socio-emotional directive (Table 5b).

 

Social and Cultural Expectations Shaped by Patriarchy (Feminist Theory – Oakley, 2005)

Feminist Theory (Oakley, 2005) explains, “Institutional patriarchy disseminates inequitable gender roles, magnificent pressure and embarrassment on working mothers.” Collective and societal expectations intensify parental stress and result in irregular child-rearing, causing children to assume stress and endure emotional pressure at home. Despite modernization, gender norms persist in assigning inconsistent caregiving responsibilities to women, with 11.54 percent (n=12 of 104) recognizing forced maternal obligations and all respondents (100%, n= 104 of 104) experiencing criticism from family and community. 

 

Scant Supervision and Alternative Socialization Agents (Social Learning Theory – Bandura, 1977)

The field data reveals that between 31.73 percent (n= 33 of 104) and 75 percent (n=78 of 104) respondents are dependent on caretakers other than their parents, insufficient structural lapse, and inconsistent familial support. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) theorizes, “Children compete with the manners, behaviors or activities they observe in others.” Prolonged absence of their mothers due to their working hours, coupled with a lack of structured caregiving from others, increases the likelihood of children being influenced by peers, developing poor study habits, and experiencing disordered daily routines. This adjustment in socialization agents may influence individuals' value acquisition, self-management competences, and academic performance (Table 5b).

 

Table 5b: Challenges Faced in Child Socialization: Consequences and Relation to Relevant Theories

Dimensions	Influential Indicators	WW (N=104)		Consequences for Children	Relevant Theories
		n	%
Constraining time	Limited time in direct supervision	31	29.81	Lower emotional bonding Insecurity Lack of academic monitoring Inconsistent discipline Decline attachment	Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1969)
	Lack of involvement in daily functioning	56	53.85
	Irregular mother-child interaction	73	70.19
Role Conflict and Stress	Overloaded domestic and professional responsibilities	87	83.65	Emotional insecurity Unexpected behavior on child due to mental stress   Conflict between role and caring	Role Strain Theory (Goode, 1960)
	Psychological stress	104	100
	Pressure and anxiety	34	32.69
Social and Cultural Expectations	Assigned caregiving duty to mothers due to gender norms of society	12	11.54	Unusual pressure on children Inconsistency in parenting	Feminist Theory (Oakley, 2005)
	Criticism from relatives, neighbors and family persons	104	100
Scant Supervision	Dependence on non-parental caregivers	35	33.65	High peer influence   Irregular study habits   Unbalanced lifestyles and schooling routine	Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977)
	Lack of day care services in workplace	42	40.38
	Insufficient structural guidance	78	75.00
	In access to surrounding support	33	31.73
	Inconsistency in familial support	24	23.08
Economic Constraints	Limited spousal support and care	32	30.77	Limited learning	Ecological System Theory (Bronfenbrenner 1979)
	Poor income group restricts childcare quality	67	64.42
	Long working hours	18	17.31
Workplace Limitations	Long hours	12	11.54	Working stress   Emotional stress   Attachment disparities	Attachment Theory Role Conflict Theory
	Inadequate leaves	11	10.58
	Schedules Inflexibility	35	33.65
Digital and Peer Influences	Unlimited screening time	76	73.08	Lack of control in behavioral change	Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977)
	Strong peer dependency	24	23.08
	Problems in peer choice	17	16.35

Note: Based on findings researcher created this table

*Multiple responses considered

Economic Constraints and Limited Learning Environments (Ecological Systems Theory:Bronfenbrenner, 1979)

The study highlights that low-income working women encounter additional challenges due to instance, 64.42% report an inability to finance quality daycare, while 30.77% indicate insufficient support from their spouse. Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) asserts that child development occurs within interrelated systems, such as family, workplace, and socio-economic structures. Economic limitations restrict access to enriched educational contexts and reliable childcare, thereby placing children in conditions that hinder cognitive development and disrupt routine stability. The microsystem (home) and exo-system (parental workplace environments) jointly affect children's social outcomes. The field data reveals that 64.42 percent (n=67 of 104) report an inability to finance quality daycare, while 30.77 percent (n=32 of 104) indicate insufficient support from their spouse (Table 5b).

 

Workplace Restrictions and Attachment Disparities (Role Conflict: Bowlby, 1969 & Attachment Theories: Goode, 1979)

Workplace rigidity, characterized by extended hours (11.54%, n= 12 of 104), insufficient vacation time (10.58%, n= 11 of 104), and rigid scheduling (33.65%, n= 35 of 104), intensifies the tension between professional and familial obligations. Role Conflict Theory (Bowlby, 1969) and Attachment Theory (Goode, 1979) collectively elucidate how constrained job situations hamper mothers' ability to engage with their children, potentially causing in emotional distress and attachment issues. Such workplace confines frequently extract routines unpredictable and encumber individuals' ability to participate empathetically.

 

Digital and Peer Influences as Substitute Socialization (Social Learning Theory: Bandura, 1977)

A significant percentage of children are immersed in digital and social contexts (73.08%, n= 76 of 104) opined on unlimited screen time, while 23.08 percent (n= 24 of 104) indicate substantial dependence on their peers that is demonstrating the increasing influence of digital media and peer interactions on children's behavior. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) explicates, “children learn behavioral patterns through observation and reinforcement.” In the absence of adequate parental oversight, children may develop detrimental peer associations, display undesirable behavioral tendencies, and experience identity confusion due to unregulated internet usage.

 

Harassment Faced by the Working Women

The present study also finds the reality that 75% of the working women are being harassed in different time in different situation (Graph 2). Besides, 25% of the working women opined that they do not face harassment (Graph 2). Nine types of harassment have been found from the study area such as personal harassment (Cf. Yaqoob, 2019), verbal harassment (Cf. Sahu, 2018), psychological harassment (Cf. Karanci & Yenal, 2014), third-party harassment; Age based harassment, power harassment, Gender harassment, physical harassment and sexual harassment (Table 6, Graph 2).

         Graph 2: Harassment Faced by the Working Women

 

Graph 3: Different Types of Harassment Faced by the Working Women

Note: Multiple Responses Considered

The field reality attest that (64.42%; n=67 of 104; 1^st majority) of the working women have to face  gender based harassment which has been considered here as any insulting remarks made towards the working women simply because they are a woman (Graph 3). Besides, 2^nd majority 51.92 percent (n=54 of 104) working women face psychological harassment (Graph 3). The study also has been investigated that 3^rd majority (50.97%; n=48 of 104) of the working women also face power based harassment which occurs when there is a misuse of power in the hierarchy of the management team (Graph 3). 4^th majority (41.35%; n=43 of 104) of the working women have to face verbal harassment and 31.69 percent (n=34 of 104, 5^th majority) working women also harass by third-party (Cf. Yaqoob, 2019; Sahu, 2018; Karanci & Yenal, 2014). Accordingly, 6^th majority (21.15%), 7^th majority (12.50%), 8th majority (10.58%) and 9th majority (08.65%) of the working women faced personal, sexual, age based and physical harassment (Cf. McBride, 2011) respectively (Graph 3).

Women in the world have emerged to advocate for women's rights, education, dignity (Nomura et al., 2015), and gender equality (Pilarz, 2020; Hossain 2018; Gao & Li, 2021 ); however, the study's findings indicated that various age groups of working women encounter distinct challenges and harassment in the workplace due to their gender (Feld et al., 2023). In several instances, individuals encounter personal, power, and psychological harassment, resulting in mental and physical stress, melancholy, diminished self-esteem, and an inadequate equilibrium between professional responsibilities and familial obligations. Equally, several obstacles pertain to the workplace environment and security concerns, particularly emphasizing advancement, development, and childcare facilities.

 

Contribution of Working Women in Changing Family Structure

The increasing participation of women in the paid labor force has become one of the most transformative forces reshaping contemporary family structures, particularly in developing societies like Bangladesh (Feld et al., 2023; Perry-Jenkins, 2022). Working women not only support household income but also influence the social mobility, wellbeing, and long-term stability of their families through their contributions to education, healthcare, and asset building. Despite the rapid growth in women’s involvement in the paid workforce, it appears that little has changed for women in terms of their family commitments (Austen and Birch, 2004). The present study   appears  that  society  still  views  women  as  the  primary  careers  of children and other family members and, as a result, many women are now faced with juggling the role of mother, partner and daughter as well as employee. The field data attest that 100 percent (n=104 of 104; 1st majority) working women have great contribution in changing family structure by supporting economically (Table 7). In this paper it has been examined, briefly, the trends in the participation of women in the paid workforce; some of the reasons for these trends; and,  most  importantly,  the  issues  that  arise  for  women  as  they  try  to  balance  their  paid and unpaid work commitments (cf. Austen and Birch, 2004:1).

Graph 4: Contribution of Working Women in Changing Family Structure

Note: Multiple Responses Considered

The working women in the Gopalganj town have great contribution in changing family structure. The second majority (94.23%; n=98 of 104) working women have formed nuclear family. It is a matter of reality that due to job location they have changed their original residence for continuing workplace. The study also revealed that most of the working women’s workplace is far from their origin besides, some of them had to change their district because of their posting.

Case 2: Kakoli Das is a 34 years old working woman who is engaged in teaching profession. Her husband is a teacher and she has two daughters. Now her place of residence is Gopalganj Town after changing their origin due to their job location and she has formed nuclear family consist of four (4) family members. She supports her family economically and she has great contribution for their daughter’s education, health facilities. She has own identity both in her family and society.

The 3^rd majority and 4^th majority (85.58%) and (83.65%) working women contribute to their family by bearing medical cost and child education respectively. In according to this fact 5^th majority (75.96%; n=79 of 104) are fulfilling children’s need, 6^th majority (53.85%) are repaying loan for their family, 7^th majority (32.69%) are creating controlling power in their family. In addition, 8^th majority (14.42%) are building owner house, 9^th majority (13.64%) are raising awareness for various familial issues, 10^th majority (11.53%) are also creating self-identity, 11^th majority (08.65%) are changing standard of living and 12^th majority (05.77%) are also changing social status.

 

Contribution of Working Women in Child Socialization

The days are gone when mother devoted her full life for development of her children. In today’s world women are not just house makers but also preferring progress in their career (Farooqet. et al. 2018). The present study has been aimed to show in this part how the process of children socialization takes places in those families where mothers remain out of home for job. For working women, balancing the dual roles of wage earner and primary caregiver often becomes a source of strain, as structural, cultural, and economic constraints intersect to influence their parenting capacities. The study attest the fact that the first majority 100 percent (n=104 of 104) working women contribute in child socialization by providing food and taking care of their children (Graph 5).

Graph 5: Contribution of Working Women in Child Socialization

Note: Multiple Responses Considered

The study explores effects of mother’s employment on their children’s brought up whether the dual responsibilities of employment and mothering are actually undertaken at the expense of child well-being. Besides, the second majority (83.65%; n=87 of 104) of the working women always provide educational expenses for their children which also can be considered as an important part in socializing child (Graph 5). The study also reveals the fact 75.96 percent (n=79 of 104; 3^rd majority) contribute much by giving time to their children in socialization (Table 8). From field observation it has been revealed that fourth majority (41.35%) and fifth majority (34.62%) are giving recreational support and providing cloths respectively (Graph 5).

Case 4: Ishita Roy (36) years old working women, is a university teacher and she has one son and one daughter. All of her children are school going children. Though she has to maintain her official duties, she always gives her children more time for their recreation, studies and teaches them discipline, norms and values of existing society. Every day she cooks for her children. At her weekend times she visits various places for her children’s mental refreshment and she communicate with her children’s schoolteachers about their studies too. She takes care of her children when they feel sick and sometimes she takes leave for her children’s need.

From field reality it also obvious that sixth, seventh and eighth majority (35.58%), (22.12%) and (21.15%) of the working women are assisting their children’s studies, taking them in school and teaching them about discipline respectively (Graph 5). From this table it is clear that children are benefited by mothers’ employed status by gaining better structure of family routines, improving family income and better regimented work behavior. For children whose mothers who are working from financial necessity in Gopalganj town it has been also noted that higher education of mothers found to be a powerful improvement of possible negative penalty for their children (Alvarez, 1985).

 

Forms of Contribution: Positive and Negative Outcomes in Child Socialization

Women move beyond their traditional domestic roles and assume significant economic responsibilities (Bourke, 2000), families experience profound shifts in organization, power relations, and decision-making patterns (Nishimoto, 2005). The dual responsibilities of employment and caregiving have redefined the gendered division of labor, contributing to the rise of nuclear families, enhanced economic security, and changing patterns of childcare (Stanfors, 2003), consumption, and lifestyle (Collins, 2019). The field data attest that women in different work force significantly contribute to household wellbeing, with 100 percent (n=104 of 104) supporting family income and children’s education, leading to improved access to schooling, healthcare, nutrition, and safe living conditions. 

 

High involvement in sanitation (84.62%, n= 88 of 104), improved housing (41.35%, n=43 of 104), and academic support 83.65 percent enhances children’s physical and cognitive development (Table 6). However, prolonged working hours reduce direct supervision, creating gaps in academic monitoring (34.62%, n= 36 of 104) and nurturing. Emotional affection remains high (94.23%, 98 of 104), but stress-related inconsistency in discipline persists (Table 6). Finally, it is clear that while economic and educational contributions fortify children’s opportunities, time constraints and workload pressures pose challenges to consistent emotional and social guidance.

 

Table 6: Contribution and Outcomes (Positive & Negative) in Child Socialization

Contribution of Working Women	Forms of Contribution	WW (N=104)		Outcomes for Children (Positive)	Outcomes for Children (Negative)
		n	%
Economic support	Family income	104	100	Better access to: Education  Healthcare  Nutrition  Quality of life	Prolonged working hours reduce direct motherly involvement time
	Medical cost	65	62.5
	Education expenses	87	83.65
	Food security	34	32.69
	Clothing	16	15.38
Educational Guidance	Supporting school fees	104	100	Higher academic opportunity Educational stability Improved  learning environment	Lack of time may reduce daily academic supervision
	Coaching or tuitions fees	45	43.27
	Monitoring Academic performance	36	34.62
Living Standard	Improving living condition	67	64.42	Safer environment   Healthier physical development	Higher expectations from family members may create stress in low-income families
	Sanitation status	88	84.62
	Better housing	43	41.35
	Nutrition	23	22.12
	Lifestyle improvement	34	32.69
Strengthening Social Awareness	Awareness of health	11	10.58	Better knowledge Improved social skills Moral development	If mothers get limited little time for communication, it limits in creating social awareness
	Social status	16	15.38
	Awareness in bad touching	9	8.65
	Education	34	32.69
	Hygienic conditions	26	25.00
Emotional support and nurturing	Warmth affection	98	94.23	Emotional security Social competence Positive attachment	Due to mental stress, there are possibility of inconsistent discipline and emotional unavailability
	Guidance despite workload	54	51.92

Note: Multiple Responses Considered

 

Concluding Remarks

Recent decades have seen transformative shifts in family dynamics, particularly with the notable increase in employed mothers, which complicates their dual roles in family and work. Despite challenges, these women remain deeply committed to their children’s socialization, investing considerable time in various aspects of parenting, including nourishment, education, and discipline. The study concludes that joint families play a crucial role in supporting working women by sharing childcare responsibilities among female household members. It notes how globalization has shifted family structures from joint to nuclear families, adversely affecting children's socialization.  While the joint family system may ease some burdens, women in nuclear families also actively contribute to their children's upbringing. The study highlights the significant involvement of fathers in parenting, particularly when mothers are employed, suggesting that while mothers primarily bear household responsibilities, paternal engagement is critical for effective socialization. It finds a positive correlation between women's employment and constructive parenting practices, positing that their ability to manage domestic and workplace challenges represents a progressive advance for societal growth, particularly in contexts like Bangladesh.

 

Policy Recommendation

Flexible workplaces are the new paradigm in modern era where technological advances, coupled with the demand for work-life balance from a rising millennial workforce, will continue to force women to integrate flexibility in the workplace. As a mother of children, all can attest that workplace flexibility is a particularly salient issue for working women. In Bangladesh, women constitute a great majority of the population. Women development is, therefore, pre-condition to national development. It is imperative to establish equal opportunity and rights to ensure national development. Some policy recommendations are as follows:

1. Strengthening Maternity Leave and Support systems

Maternity leave including paid family and medical leave should ensure for all working women. GOs and NGOs should raise their hand for the development of working mothers. Maternity leave should increase in one year time limit for the women in different institutions.

2. Promoting Gender Equality in Employment and Economic Participation

Enact policies to overcome women's unequal access to economic livelihood opportunities and formal employment, including by: promoting equal pay for equal work; ensuring freedom from discrimination; combating gendered labour market segregation; shifting tax structures; providing incentives for employers.

3. Expanding Access to Capital and Financial Empowerment

Ensure access to capital and finance to promote entrepreneurship and the full participation of women in the formal economy.

4. Creating Gender-friendly Workplaces with Childcare Facilities

Ensure friendly, gender free and co-operative working environment for the working women besides, child caring systems should build up in workplace. 

 

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